ISAK Home

Vol. 5 No. 3 (2025): Volume 5, Issue 3, Year 2025

Articles

Body Composition and Its Determinants among Nepali Speaking Adult Males of West Bengal, India

  • Argina Khatun,
  • Siddarth Chhetri,
  • Arindam Biswas
Argina Khatun
Department of Anthropology, University of North Bengal, West Bengal, India.
Siddarth Chhetri
Department of Anthropology, University of North Bengal, West Bengal, India.
Arindam Biswas
Department of Anthropology, University of North Bengal, West Bengal, India.
PDF
DOI: https://doi.org/10.34256/ijk2532

Published 05-12-2025

Keywords

  • Body composition,
  • Body fat percentage,
  • Visceral fat percentage,
  • Sociodemographic and lifestyle factors

How to Cite

Khatun, A., Chhetri, S., & Biswas, A. (2025). Body Composition and Its Determinants among Nepali Speaking Adult Males of West Bengal, India. International Journal of Kinanthropometry, 5(3), 9–21. https://doi.org/10.34256/ijk2532

Copyright (c) 2025 Argina Khatun, Siddarth Chhetri, Arindam Biswas

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.

Dimensions

Crossref
Scopus
Google Scholar
Europe PMC

Abstract

Introduction: Body composition assessment plays a crucial role in evaluating health risks associated with excess or inadequate body fat. The determination of body composition is a common practice for evaluating health and nutritional status. In modern times, analyzing body composition has become vital for understanding nutritional health, disease risks, and overall well-being. Methods: This cross-sectional study examines age-specific variations in body composition and the influence of socio-demographic and lifestyle factors among 284 adult male tea estate workers (aged 18–59 years) from the Jorebunglow Sukhiapokhari block, Darjeeling district, West Bengal, India. Anthropometric and body composition parameters, including height, weight, BMI, body fat percentage, subcutaneous fat percentage, visceral fat percentage, and skeletal muscle percentage, were measured for the present report using the Omron Karada Scan HBF-514C Body Fat Analyzer. One-way ANOVA with post hoc Scheffé tests was applied to assess age-related differences of various body composition variables. Results: The results indicate significant age-associated increases in body fat and visceral fat percentages, alongside a progressive decline in skeletal muscle percentage. BMI and body fat percentage peaked in the 30–39 years age group before declining in older participants. Correlation analysis revealed positive associations between age and fat parameters, whereas skeletal muscle percentage showed a strong negative correlation with age. Socio-demographic and lifestyle factors, including physical activity, housing conditions, alcohol and tobacco consumption, were significantly linked to body composition. Individuals who engaging in regular physical activity exhibited lower body fat and visceral fat percentages. Additionally, obesity showed a strong association with increased fat accumulation in older age group. Conclusion: These findings highlight the progressive impact of aging on body composition and underscore the role of lifestyle factors in modulating health risks among tea estate workers.

PDF

References

  1. Akindele, M.O., Phillips, J.S., Igumbor, E.U. (2016). The Relationship between Body Fat Percentage and Body Mass Index in Overweight and Obese Individuals in an Urban African Setting. Journal of public health in Africa, 7(1): 515. https://doi.org/10.4081/jphia.2016.515
  2. AlKalbani, S.R., Murrin, C. (2023). The Association between Alcohol Intake and Obesity in a Sample of the Irish Adult Population, a Cross-Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 23(1): 2075. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16946-4
  3. Andreoli, A., Garaci, F., Cafarelli, F. P., & Guglielmi, G. (2016). Body composition in clinical practice. European Journal of Radiology, 85(8), 1461–1468. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrad.2016.02.005
  4. Ayvaz, G., Cimen, A.R. (2011). Methods for Body Composition Analysis in Adults. The Open Obesity Journal, 3(1): 62-69. http://dx.doi.org/10.2174/1876823701103010062
  5. Bagga, A. (1998). Normality of Ageing-a cross-cultural Perspective. Journal of Human Ecology, 9(1): 35-46.
  6. Bergman, R.N., Stefanovski, D., Buchanan, T.A., Sumner, A.E., Reynolds, J.C., Sebring, N.G., Xiang, A.H. Watanabe, R.M., (2011). A Better Index of Body Adiposity. Obesity, 19(5): 1083-1089. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.38
  7. Bisai, S., Bose, K., Ganguli, S., Mumtaz, H., Mukhopadhyay, A. Bhadra, M., (2008). Sexual Dimorphism and Age Variations in Anthropometry, Body Composition and Nutritional Status among Kora Mudi Tribals of Bankura District, West Bengal, India. India. Stud. Tribes and Tribals, 2: 103-109
  8. Boneva-Asiova, Z., Boyanov, M. (2011). Age-Related Changes of Body Composition and Abdominal Adipose Tissue Assessed by Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis and Computed Tomography. Endocrinologia Y Nutricion, 58(9): 472-477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endonu.2011.07.004
  9. Borga, M., West, J., Bell, J.D., Harvey, N.C., Romu, T., Heymsfield, S.B. Dahlqvist Leinhard, O. (2018). Advanced Body Composition Assessment: From Body Mass Index To Body Composition Profiling. Journal of Investigative Medicine, 66(5): 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1136/jim-2018-000722
  10. Bose, K. (2002). Age Trends in Adiposity and Central Body Fat Distribution among Adult White Men Resident in Peterborough, East Anglia, England. Collegium Antropologicum, 26(1): 179-186.
  11. Bose, K., Bisai, S., Chakraborty, F. (2006). Age Variations In Anthropometric and Body Composition Characteristics and Underweight among Male Bathudis–A Tribal Population of Keonjhar District, Orissa, India. Collegium Antropologicum, 30(4): 771-775.
  12. Bose, K., Chaudhuri, A.B. (2003). Age Variations in Adiposity and Body Fat Composition among Older Bengalee Hindu Women of Calcutta, India. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 311-321. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29542473
  13. Bowen, L., Taylor, A.E., Sullivan, R., Ebrahim, S., Kinra, S., Krishna, K.R., Kulkarni, B., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Ekelund, U., Wells, J.C. Kuper, H. (2015). Associations between Diet, Physical Activity and Body Fat Distribution: A Cross Sectional Study in an Indian Population. BMC Public Health, 15(1): 281. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-015-1550-7
  14. Bradbury, K.E., Guo, W., Cairns, B.J., Armstrong, M.E. Key, T.J. (2017). Association between Physical Activity and Body Fat Percentage, With Adjustment for BMI: A Large Cross-Sectional Analysis of UK Biobank. BMJ Open, 7(3): e011843. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2016-011843
  15. Briand, M., Raffin, J., Gonzalez-Bautista, E., Ritz, P., Abellan Van Kan, G., Pillard, F., Faruch-Bilfeld, M., Guyonnet, S., Dray, C., Vellas, B. de Souto Barreto, P. (2025). Body Composition and Aging: Cross-Sectional Results From the INSPIRE Study in People 20 To 93 Years Old. Geroscience, 47(1): 863-875. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11357-024-01245-6
  16. Campa, F., Toselli, S., Mazzilli, M., Gobbo, L. A., & Coratella, G. (2021). Assessment of body composition in athletes: A narrative review of available methods with special reference to quantitative and qualitative bioimpedance analysis. Nutrients, 13(5), 1620. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13051620
  17. Chen, L.K. (2023). Aging, Body Composition, And Cognitive Decline: Shared And Unique Characteristics. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 27(11): 929-931. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-023-2022-x
  18. Chithira, K.R., Joseph, A. (2016). Age and Gender Related Changes In Body Composition Parameters Among Adults. International Journal of Home Science, 2(3): 349-352.
  19. Chumlea, W.C., Guo, S.S., Kuczmarski, R.J., Flegal, K.M., Johnson, C.L., Heymsfield, S.B., Lukaski, H.C., Friedl, K. Hubbard, V.S. (2002). Body Composition Estimates from NHANES III Bioelectrical Impedance Data. International Journal of Obesity, 26(12): 1596-1609. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802167
  20. Das, B.M. Roy, S.K. (2010). Age Changes in the Anthropometric and Body Composition Characteristics of the Bishnupriya Manipuris of Cachar District, Assam. Advances in Bioscience and Biotechnology, 1(02): 122-130. http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/abb.2010.12017
  21. Das, K., Mukherjee, K., Ganguli, S., Pal, S., Bagchi, S.S. (2020). Age-Related Variations In Anthropometry, Body Composition And Nutritional Status Among The Adult Kheria Sabar Males of Purulia, West Bengal, India. Collegium Antropologicum, 44(2): 73-80. https://doi.org/10.5671/ca.44.2.2
  22. Dempster, P.H.I.L.I.P., Aitkens, S.U.S.A.N. (1995). A New Air Displacement Method for the Determination of Human Body Composition. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 27(12): 1692-1697. https://doi.org/10.1249/00005768-199512000-00017
  23. Emery, E.M., Schmid, T.L., Kahn, H.S., Filozof, P.P. (1993). A Review of the Association between Abdominal Fat Distribution, Health Outcome Measures, and Modifiable Risk Factors. American Journal of Health Promotion, 7(5): 342-353. https://doi.org/10.4278/0890-1171-7.5.342
  24. Feng, Q., Bešević, J., Conroy, M., Omiyale, W., Lacey, B. Allen, N. (2024). Comparison of Body Composition Measures Assessed By Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis versus Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry in the United Kingdom Biobank. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 63: 214-225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2024.06.040
  25. Gadekar, T., Dudeja, P., Basu, I., Vashisht, S. Mukherji, S. (2020). Correlation of Visceral Body Fat with Waist–Hip Ratio, Waist Circumference and Body Mass Index in Healthy Adults: A Cross Sectional Study. Medical Journal Armed Forces India, 76(1): 41-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2017.12.001
  26. Gallagher, D., Heymsfield, S.B., Heo, M., Jebb, S.A., Murgatroyd, P.R. Sakamoto, Y. (2000). Healthy Percentage Body Fat Ranges: An Approach For Developing Guidelines Based On Body Mass Index. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 72(3): 694-701. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/72.3.694
  27. Gallagher, D., Visser, M., De Meersman, R.E., Sepúlveda, D., Baumgartner, R.N., Pierson, R.N., Harris, T. Heymsfield, S.B. (1997). Appendicular Skeletal Muscle Mass: Effects Of Age, Gender, And Ethnicity. Journal of Applied Physiology, 83(1): 229-239. https://doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1997.83.1.229
  28. Haroun, D., Taylor, S.J., Viner, R.M., Hayward, R.S., Darch, T.S., Eaton, S., Cole, T.J. Wells, J.C. (2010). Validation of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis in Adolescents across Different Ethnic Groups. Obesity, 18(6): 1252-1259. https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2009.344
  29. Heymsfield, S. B., Lohman, T. G., Wang, Z., & Going, S. B. (Eds.). (2005). Human body composition (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics.
  30. Holmes, C.J., Racette, S.B. (2021). The Utility of Body Composition Assessment in Nutrition and Clinical Practice: An Overview of Current Methodology. Nutrients, 13(8): 2493. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13082493
  31. Hsieh, S.D., Muto, T. (2004). A Simple And Practical Index For Assessing The Risk Of Metabolic Syndrome During Routine Health Checkups. Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine, 62(6): 1143-1149.
  32. Huayi, Z., Gang, X., Laiyuan, L., Hui, H. (2023). Age-And Sex-Related Trends In Body Composition Among Beijing Adults Aged 20–60 Years: A Cross-Sectional Study. Bmc Public Health, 23(1): 1519. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-023-16459-0
  33. Hughes, V.A., Roubenoff, R., Wood, M., Frontera, W.R., Evans, W.J., Singh, M.A.F. (2004). Anthropometric Assessment of 10-Y Changes in Body Composition in the Elderly. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 80(2): 475-482. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/80.2.475
  34. Kazibwe, R., Chevli, P.A., Evans, J.K., Allison, M., Michos, E.D., Wood, A.C., Ding, J., Shapiro, M.D. Mongraw‐Chaffin, M. (2023). Association between Alcohol Consumption and Ectopic Fat in the Multi‐Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Journal of the American Heart Association, 12(18): e030470. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.123.030470
  35. Kim, S., Won, C.W. (2022). Sex-Different Changes of Body Composition in Aging: A Systemic Review. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 102: 104711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2022.104711
  36. Kitchlew, R., Chachar, A.Z.K. Latif, S. (2017). Body Mass Index; Visceral Fat And Total Body Fat Distribution And Its Relation To Body Mass Index In Clinical Setting Using Bio-Impedance Body Composition Monitor. The Professional Medical Journal, 24(02): 326-334. https://doi.org/10.17957/TPMJ/17.3815
  37. Kyusa, M.M., Kruger, H.S. de Lange-Loots, Z. (2023). Differences In Calculated Body Fat Percentage Estimated From Published Equations Based On Bioelectric Impedance Analysis In Healthy Young South African Adults. Journal of Public Health Research, 12(3): 22799036231196732. https://doi.org/10.1177/22799036231196732
  38. Liao, Y.S., Li, H.C., Lu, H.K., Lai, C.L., Wang, Y.S. Hsieh, K.C. (2020). Comparison of Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis and Dual Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry for Total and Segmental Bone Mineral Content with a Three-Compartment Model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(7): 2595. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17072595
  39. Lohman, T.G., Roche, A.F., Martorell, R. (1988). Anthropometric Standardization Reference Manual. Human Kinetics Books, Chicago, 6(1).
  40. Lokpo, S.Y., Ametefe, C.Y., Osei-Yeboah, J., Owiredu, W.K., Ahenkorah-Fondjo, L., Agordoh, P.D., Acheampong, E., Duedu, K.O., Adejumo, E.N., Appiah, M. Asiamah, E.A. (2023). Performance olf Body Adiposity Index and Relative Fat Mass in Predicting Bioelectric Impedance Analysis‐Derived Body Fat Percentage: A Cross‐Sectional Study among Patients with Type 2 Diabetes in the Ho Municipality, Ghana. Biomed Research International, 2023(1): 1500905. https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/1500905
  41. MacDonald, A.J., Greig, C.A. Baracos, V. (2011). The Advantages and Limitations of Cross-Sectional Body Composition Analysis. Current Opinion in Supportive and Palliative Care, 5(4): 342-349. https://doi.org/10.1097/spc.0b013e32834c49eb
  42. Matsuzawa, Y., Funahashi, T., & Nakamura, T. (2011). The concept of metabolic syndrome: Contribution of visceral fat accumulation and its molecular mechanism. Journal of Atherosclerosis and Thrombosis, 18(8), 629–639. https://doi.org/10.5551/jat.7922
  43. Meeuwsen, S., Horgan, G.W., Elia, M. (2010). The Relationship between BMI and Percent Body Fat, Measured by Bioelectrical Impedance, In a Large Adult Sample is Curvilinear and Influenced by Age and Sex. Clinical Nutrition, 29(5): 560-566. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2009.12.011
  44. Nawfal, K.I., Tiwari, S., Tiwari, S. Haq, M.A.U. (2024). Using A Cross-Sectional Analysis Of Age-Related Variations In Anthropometric Indices And Their Association With Cardiometabolic Health In Adult Men. Physical Education Theory and Methodology, 24(6): 881-890. https://doi.org/10.17309/tmfv.2024.6.04
  45. Neeland, I.J., Ayers, C.R., Rohatgi, A.K., Turer, A.T., Berry, J.D., Das, S.R., Vega, G.L., Khera, A., McGuire, D.K., Grundy, S.M. de Lemos, J.A. (2013). Associations of Visceral and Abdominal Subcutaneous Adipose Tissue with Markers of Cardiac and Metabolic Risk in Obese Adults. Obesity, 21(9): E439-E447. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20135
  46. Omron Healthcare. (2008). HBF-514C full body sensor body composition monitor and scale: Instruction manual. Omron Healthcare, Inc.
  47. Orr, C.M., Dufour, D.L. Patton, J.Q., 2001. A Comparison of Anthropometric Indices of Nutritional Status In Tukanoan And Achuar Amerindians. American Journal of Human Biology: The Official Journal Of The Human Biology Association, 13(3): 301-309. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajhb.1053
  48. Pietrobelli, A., Formica, C., Wang, Z., & Heymsfield, S. B. (1996). Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry body composition model: Review of physical concepts. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 271(6), E941–E951. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1996.271.6.E941
  49. Podstawski, R., Omelan, A., Borysławski, K. Wąsik, J. (2023). Relationships Between Anthropometric And Body Composition Characteristics And Age In Polish Women Over 60 As Affected By Their Socioeconomic And Health Status And Physical Activity Levels. Frontiers In Physiology, 14: 1198485. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2023.1198485
  50. Rai, R., Ghosh, T., Jangra, S., Sharma, S., Panda, S., Kochhar, K.P. Panda. (2023). Relationship between Body Mass Index and Body Fat Percentage in a Group Of Indian Participants: A Cross-Sectional Study From A Tertiary Care Hospital. Cureus, 15(10): e47817. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.47817
  51. Ranasinghe, C., Gamage, P., Katulanda, P., Andraweera, N., Thilakarathne, S. Tharanga, P. (2013). Relationship between Body Mass Index (BMI) and Body Fat Percentage, Estimated By Bioelectrical Impedance, In a Group of Sri Lankan Adults: A Cross Sectional Study. BMC Public Health, 13(1): 797. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-13-797
  52. Reber, E., Gomes, F., Vasiloglou, M.F., Schuetz, P. Stanga, Z. (2019). Nutritional Risk Screening and Assessment. Journal Of Clinical Medicine, 8(7): 1065. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm8071065
  53. Roy S., Pal A., Sen J. (2020). Age-Specific And Sex-Specific Variations In Body Composition of Adults Belonging To The Rajbanshi Population Of Darjeeling District, West Bengal, India. Online Journal of Health and Allied Sciences, 19(4): 2.
  54. Rush, E.C., Freitas, I. Plank, L.D. (2009). Body Size, Body Composition and Fat Distribution: Comparative Analysis of European, Maori, Pacific Island And Asian Indian Adults. British Journal of Nutrition, 102(4): 632-641. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007114508207221
  55. Schaap, L.A., Koster, A. Visser, M. (2013). Adiposity, Muscle Mass, and Muscle Strength In Relation To Functional Decline in Older Persons. Epidemiologic Reviews, 35(1): 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1093/epirev/mxs006
  56. Siddiqui, N.I., Khan, S.A., Shoeb, M. ose, S. (2016). Anthropometric Predictors of Bio-Impedance Analysis (BIA) Phase Angle In Healthy Adults. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research: JCDR, 10(6): CC01. https://doi.org/10.7860/JCDR/2016/17229.7976
  57. Singal, P., Sidhu, L.S., Bhatnagar, D.P. (1988). Estimated Fat, Bone Mineral, Total Body Water and Cell Solids in Females of Two Communities of Punjab, India. Anthropologischer Anzeiger, 51-57. https://www.jstor.org/stable/29539853
  58. Sinha, I., Pal, A., Sen, J. (2018). Age and Sex Variations in Anthropometric Characteristics and Body Composition of Adults Belonging to the Rajbanshi Population of Darjeeling District, West Bengal. South Asian Anthropologist, 18(2), 203–213.
  59. Smolik, R., Gaweł, M., Kliszczyk, D., Sasin, N., Szewczyk, K. Górnicka, M. (2025). Comparative Analysis of Body Composition Results Obtained By Air Displacement Plethysmography (Adp) And Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (Bia) In Adults. Applied Sciences, 15(7): 3480. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15073480
  60. Strickland, S.S., Ulijaszek, S.J. (1993). Body Mass Index, Ageing And Differential Reported Morbidity In Rural Sarawak. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 47(1): 9-19.
  61. Sulis, S., Falbova, D., Benus, R., svabova, P., Hozakova, A. Vorobelova, L. (2024). Sex and Obesity-Specific Associations of Ultrasound-Assessed Radial Velocity of Sound with Body Composition. Applied Sciences, 14(16): 7319. https://doi.org/10.3390/app14167319
  62. Tian, S., Morio, B., Denis, J.B. Mioche, L. (2016). Age-Related Changes in Segmental Body Composition by Ethnicity and History of Weight Change across the Adult Lifespan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 13(8): 821. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph13080821
  63. Traversy, G. Chaput, J.P. (2015). Alcohol Consumption And Obesity: An Update. Current Obesity Reports, 4(1): 122-130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13679-014-0129-4
  64. Vijayan, D.V., Panchu, D.P., Bahuleyan, D.B., Rajaratnam, D.S.A. Dayalan, D.D. (2024). Exploring the Relationship between Body Mass Index and Body Fat Percentage across Age and Gender: A Cross – Sectional Study. South Eastern European Journal of Public Health, 1000–1007. https://doi.org/10.70135/seejph.vi.1924
  65. Wang, D., Li, Y., Lee, S.G., Wang, L., Fan, J., Zhang, G., Wu, J., Ji, Y., Li, S. (2011). Ethnic Differences in Body Composition and Obesity Related Risk Factors: Study In Chinese and White Males Living in China. PloS one, 6(5): e19835. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0019835
  66. Webb, G.P. (2002). Nutrition: A Health Promotion Approach (2nd Ed.). Nutrition & Food Science, 32(4): 165–166.https://doi.org/10.1108/nfs.2002.32.4.165.4.
  67. World Health Organization. (2003). Diet, nutrition, and the prevention of chronic diseases: Report of a joint WHO/FAO expert consultation (WHO Technical Report Series No. 916). World Health Organization.
  68. World Health Organization. Regional Office for the Western Pacific. (2000). The Asia-Pacific perspective: Redefining obesity and its treatment. Health Communications Australia.
  69. Xu, F., Earp, J.E., Adami, A., Lofgren, I.E., Delmonico, M.J., Greene, G.W. Riebe, D. (2022). The Sex and Race/Ethnicity-Specific Relationships of Abdominal Fat Distribution and Anthropometric Indices in US Adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(23): 15521. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192315521
  70. Zou, Q., Su, C., Du, W., Ouyang, Y., Wang, H., Wang, Z., Ding, G. Zhang, B. (2020). The Association between Physical Activity and Body Fat Percentage with Adjustment for Body Mass Index among Middle-Aged Adults: China Health and Nutrition Survey in 2015. Bmc Public Health, 20(1): 732. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-08832-0